The fate of Achilles seems to pop up numerous times throughout the text in Homer’s Illyad. Thetis tells Achilles his ultimate fate is his own death that would soon follow Hector’s. While Agammemnon offers Achilles riches and honor to put aside their differences in order to commence his role in the Trojan War, Achilles recognizes his participation in the war may ultimately lead to his own death when he says, “I say no wealth is worth my life!”[1] However, after the death of his dear friend Patroclus, Achilles is willing to embrace his fate in order to avenge the Patroculs’ death. This is exemplified in the passage between Thetis and Achilles where he comments on how cruel and unfair fate can be:
“But Thetis answered, warning through her tears, ‘You’re doomed to a short life, my son, from all you say! For hard on the heels of Hector’s death your death must come at once—’
Then let me die at once’— Achilles burst out, disparaging— ‘since it was not my fate to save my dearest comrade from his death!’[2]
When Priam pleads to Achilles to return the dead body of his son Hector, Achilles seems to recognize the major role fate plays in his life and recognizes the influence of the Gods when he says, “So the immortals spun our lives that we, we wretched men live on to bear such torments.”[3] Originally, Achilles fights against his fate and is determined to write his own destiny; however, Achilles realizes that there are some things that are out of his control and ultimately fate is determined by the Gods themselves.
Fate (μοίρα)[4] traced back to ancient Greek terminology was referred to as “moira” and defined as “one’s destiny in life.” It was believed that moira also referred to as “mira” was predetermined at birth indicating that fate was sealed and one could not escape their destiny or what fate had in store for them. This belief was established through the myth of the three fates often referred to as the three fates of moirae. Three immortal sisters who controlled the life and destiny of mortals, which was determined by the selection and cutting the thread of life for each mortal at birth. Modern Greek culture uses the terms moira and tihi interchangeably and to mean the same thing. However, Tihi referred more to luck stemming from Tyche, the God of luck and fortune. Tihi was used more to refer to luck and fate in regards to marriage, wealth, and health.[5]
Whereas the ancient Greeks thought of fate as a concept that was predetermined and locked in as illustrated by Homer’s Illyad and the fate of Achilles, contemporary literature views fate as a concept that can be determined and influenced by the actions of individuals rather than determined by a higher influence or power. The theme of fate in more contemporary and modern literature seems to suggest renouncing the intervention of divinity and higher influences in order for characters to work out and determine their own fates. The commentary and actions of “the Gods” is absent in more contemporary literature suggesting mortals have the power to control our own fates and destinies. While fate and destiny are not denied, it is not set in stone as ancient Greek literature suggests.[6]
Perhaps, this shift was due to the work of classical writer Thucydides who has been known as one of the first writers in the realist tradition. Thucydides argued the idea that we had no control over our own fate or the fate of a nation was problematic based on his observations regarding human nature. He was one of the first writers to identify the influence of cultural and political difference was more of an influence over fate and destiny in the Peloponnesian War. Where Homer places blame upon the Gods and fate for the Trojan War, Thucydides argues it is the states that are the “primary actors” and blame needs to be placed on actions taken by states seeking power to maximize their self preservation. It is these actions of the states that Thucydides identifies as rational behavior regarding wars and international relations explaining fate and the power of Gods have little to do with international conflict.[7]
While the use of fate in political speech has been present in American Presidential rhetoric in instances such as the American Revolution and the Civil War, most have suggested that mankind still has power and influence over the their own individual fates as well as the fate of the nation. However, it has been argued that the use of fate has often been used by political leaders in American history in order to justify military action. Usually it is the fate of those that military action is directed toward that is discussed and in some cases the fate of the American nation. This was especially prevalent in Bush’s rhetoric concerning 9/11 and the Iraq War. A mythos of good vs. evil was created in the “War on Terrorism” script used by the Bush Administration after the 9/11 attack. Discourse analysts argue that cultural scripts serve as a social representation in order to help people interact in unfamiliar situations. Through this script, a war is declared not on a nation or a society necessarily, but more of the abstract concept of terrorism itself. Bush goes on to discuss the fate coming in the form of their demise of those nations engaging in terrorism or those that assist terrorists. America’s fate is discussed as a call to action in order to prevent future “evils” from occurring.[8] So, fate is determined by action not a higher influence. It is the actions of the terrorists and countries who aid them that determine their fate. It is the actions of the Americans as they stand together as one nation to defend against evil acts that determines the nation’s fate.
While fate is used in political speech, fate is still determined by the actions of individuals rather than a pre-determined fate established by a higher power. Even in reference to religion and faith, mankind ultimately has free will, which has the power to influence fate. So, is the actions of those who choose to engage in terrorism that ultimately establishes their fate and the actions taken against them in the war on terror.
The contemporary use of the term fate seems to suggest that we ultimately have the power to determine our own fate and choose our own destinies rather than merely playing out the whimsical plan of the Gods.
[1] Homer’s Illyad: Book IX
[2] Homer’s Illyad: Book XVIII
[3] Homer’s Illyad: Book XXIV
[4] Translator. (2009, September 07). World Lingo. Retrieved 2009, from http://www.worldlingo.com/
[5] Greek Care. (2009, September 07):Retrieved 2009, from http://www.greekcare.org.au
[7] Bagby, L.M.J. (1994). The Use and Abuse of Thucydides in International Relations. International Organization, 48(1), 131-153.
[8] Chang, G.C., & Mehan, H.B. (2006). Discourse in a religious mode: The Bush Administration’s discourse in the war on terrorism and its challenges. Pragmatics, 16(1), 1-23.
3 comments:
Your section about Thucydides is really interesting--From the way that you describe him, he seems to have invented the international relations theory of realism 2500 years before IR became an academic discipline in a modern sense.
States as the dominant actors? Check.
Seeking to maximize power and self preservation? Check.
Rational behavior governs decisions, especially in the realm of state security? Check.
I find it interesting that the Greeks felt the need to appease various gods, yet they could never escape their fate. Why bother then? Why not simply pray, offer sacrifices, etc. to the three immortal sisters in charge of your fate?
In many of our excavations we made the jump from the ancient Greek to the modern, myself included. But I would like to offer a segue to the modern. Ancient Saxons used the term "Wyrd" for fate, which eventually became or modern "weird". For them, fate was the uncontrollable forces in the universe that determined ones destiny. I've always found it ironic that their word for fate is what we now use to describe something strange.
Also, you said, "Originally, Achilles fights against his fate and is determined to write his own destiny". But really there is no destiny of his own he tries to make, he simply sits and waits. Perhaps we can fight or destiny, Achilles failed though through inaction.
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